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Research Article
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Sacko et al.
2021
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The impact of motor competence on energy expenditure during object control skill
performance in children and young adults
RYAN S. SACKO
1
| TILL UTESCH
2
| FARID BARDID
3,4
| DAVID F. STODDEN
5
1
The Citadel, Department of Health and Human Performance, South Carolina, United States of America.
2
University of Müenster, Münster, Germany.
3
University of Strathclyde, School of Education, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
4
Ghent University, Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent, Belgium.
5
Department of Physical Education, University of South Carolina, South Carolina, United States of America.
Correspondence to:!Ryan S. Sacko, +1(803) 447-2367, twitter: ryansacko, orcid.org/0000-0002-2104-6265.
email: rsacko@citadel.edu
https://doi.org/10.20338/bjmb.v15i2.208
HIGHLIGHTS
• This study uses RSAs to illustrate the effects
of skill level on energy expenditure.
• First study to explore the impact of skill and EE
levels during ball skills.
• Provides evidence that the repetitive practice
of object control skills can aid in the
accumulation of recommended levels of EE.
ABBREVIATIONS
AIC Akaike information criterion
Adjusted R
2
Explained variance
b
0
Intercept
b
1
to b
5
Regression coefficients in the RSA
CFI Comparative fit indices
EE Energy expenditure
MC Motor competence
ML Maximum likelihood estimator
METS Metabolic equivalence of task
p Absolute significance of the model
PA Physical activity
RSA Response surface analysis
PUBLICATION DATA
Received 19 10 2020
Accepted 11 12 2020
Published 01 06 2021
BACKGROUND: An understanding of how motor skill performance levels relate to energy expenditure (EE) is an
important, yet relatively unexplored topic that may better inform physical activity interventions.
AIM: This study examined the impact of motor competence (MC) on EE during the performance of object control
skills in children and young adults.
METHOD: Forty-two children (Mage 8.1 years) and 40 young adults (Mage = 23.4 years) completed sessions of
throwing and kicking at varying intensity intervals. Polynomial regressions with response surface analysis were
conducted to analyze the impact of process- and product-oriented MC levels on EE.
RESULTS: Moderate positive associations among process-oriented motor competence levels and EE were
demonstrated in all trial interval conditions with stronger associations shown for shorter trial intervals.
CONCLUSION: Individuals’ movement quality (process) demonstrated greater associations with EE than
performance product (speed), especially with higher intensity skill practice. These results provide additional
evidence of the positive impact that MC has on the health benefits of physical activity, specifically during
participation in activities that inherently require repeated performance of object control skills.
KEYWORDS: Product-oriented | Process-oriented | Motor skills | Measurement | Physical activity | Response
surface analysis
INTRODUCTION
Childhood is a critical time for the development of competence in a variety of gross
motor skills as they are the building blocks for more complex movements that are
demonstrated in a variety of activities across the lifespan.
1
A large and constantly growing
literature base continues to support the impact that motor competence (MC) has on health-
related outcomes (i.e., physical activity, fitness, and body weight status).
2
Recent evidence
demonstrates that repeated performance of various motor skills at different intensities is
associated with moderate to high energy expenditure (EE) levels.
3–5
However, research
examining the impact that competence levels have on EE is lacking. It is important to
understand how differences in competence levels relate to both acute as well as long-term
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EE levels as it may influence how interventions are structured to maximize the health
benefits of physical activity (PA).
Motor skills are generally separated into three broad categories: locomotor (e.g.,
walk, run, hop), balance/stability (e.g., bend, twist), and object control skills (e.g., throw, kick,
strike). Performing activities that involve continuous locomotor skills such as walking or
running and participating in activities like soccer or tennis have been recommended to
achieve health-enhancing levels of PA
6
in both children and adults.
7,8
EE levels assessed
during these activities generally is high
9,10
; however, an understanding of how the
performance of object control skills (e.g., kicking, throwing, and striking) contributes to EE
during activities that inherently involve these skills when integrated in gameplay or during
specific practice has only recently been investigated.
3–5
Recently, Sacko et al. (2018 & 2019)
explored the EE of object control skills in children and young adults. Results from Sacko et
al. (2018 & 2019) demonstrated that the repetitive performance of object control skills at
intervals of 6, 12, and 30 seconds resulted in moderate to vigorous PA regardless of the
performers’ skill level.
3,4
Thus, if the repetitive performance of object control skills is
associated with high EE, then promoting their development during PA interventions and
physical education will have both an acute and long-term health-enhancing benefit.
2,11–13
The relationship between EE and object control skill performance is important as the practice
of these skills in a variety of settings (e.g., playing catch, gameplay, physical education, sport
practice) generally involves multiple repetitions, but at varied intervals (i.e., variable
trials/minute). Thus, it is important to understand how the number of trials performed per unit
of time in an activity impact EE.
The performance of object control skills involves complex multi-joint movements that
demand high neuromuscular involvement due to the activation of large muscle groups when
produced with high effort.
3–5,11,12
Neuromuscular demands associated with object control
skills are substantially higher than locomotor skills of moderate intensity (e.g., jogging)
suggesting that EE would also be high when these type of skills are repeated in a play or
practice context.
14–16
Furthermore, a noted increase in the number of degrees of freedom
utilized during movement occurs as object control skill level of a performer increases,
necessitating greater neuromuscular involvement and intensity (i.e., increased joint range of
motion, muscle recruitment, and muscle activation with increased force production),
specifically when performing at high effort levels.
16–19
The increased neuromuscular demand
presumably increases metabolic energy demand. Contrasting this view is the notion that a
higher level of skill is associated with increased efficiency of movement.
20
Thus, when
comparing the performance of a skill between a less skilled and a highly skilled performer,
it is generally assumed that the higher skilled performer would be more efficient (i.e., lower
EE) in their performance.
20
However, this assumption has not been empirically tested.
Additionally, this assumption would rely on an additional assumption that the output of both
performers would be fixed (i.e., the same performance outcome), which does not take into
account the neuromuscular demand and resultant EE with high effort performance. As
effortful practice is a fundamental requirement for advancing skill levels, specifically with
object control skills such as kicking, throwing, and striking, understanding differences in EE
between higher and lower-skilled individuals during a performance would generally be
associated with high effort performance, regardless of skill level.
14,18,21–25
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Updated recommendations from the Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory
Committee (2018) highlight the need to a) increase our understanding of dose-response
relationships between PA and multiple health outcomes throughout the lifespan, and b)
develop instrumentation and measurement techniques that will enhance PA surveillance
systems.
6
Examining MC includes the evaluation of both the process- and product-oriented
assessments of a wide range of skills.
26
An initial step in understanding the dose-response
relationships between different types of PA (e.g., skill practice and performance) and health
outcomes is to explore the interactions of skill performance respective to process- and
product-oriented assessments. One type of process-oriented skill assessment that relies on
the qualitative interpretation of movement performances respective to independent
components (i.e., body segments or limbs) known as developmental sequences.
27
Qualitatively different component levels are evaluated on an ordinal scale with higher levels
representing a more skillful performance. Although process-oriented skill assessments
provide specific descriptions of performers’ actions during a skilled event, each component
must be analyzed independently, a process that requires high levels of experience and large
quantities of time to interpret. In contrast, a product-oriented assessment provides
instantaneous results of the outcome of a movement, albeit through the use of tools (i.e.,
radar gun) that may be expensive and difficult to obtain by the end user. Product-oriented
assessments provide data in the form of a quantitative score (e.g., speed, force, or the
number of successful attempts).
28
Intuitively, one would expect that a strong relationship
exists between process- and product-oriented motor skill measurements; however, this
alignment has yet to be established in children. Recent studies have reported low (5.3%;
4–11 year olds
29
) to moderate amounts of variance explained (27%; 5–8 year olds
30
)
between overall performance on the process-oriented TGMD-2 and the product-oriented
Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2
nd
edition.
29,30
However, unlike the
aforementioned studies where product and process measures were dissimilar, the strength
of association grows when the measurement of product and process-oriented measure
occurs within the same motor skill assessment. For example, developmental sequence
levels for throwing predict 69–85% of ball speed in children aged 6–13 years.
31
Exploring the EE of object control skill performance has the potential to improve our
understanding of how different activities contribute to the metabolic outputs performed at
varying levels of skills and their contribution toward health outcomes throughout the lifespan.
A heightened understanding of the relationship between process- and product-oriented skill
assessments may allow for the development of instrumentation and measurement
techniques that will better inform PA surveillance systems. Thus, the purpose of this study
was to determine relationships between process- and product-oriented MC performance
levels and METS (metabolic equivalence of task) during object control skill performance in
children and young adults.
METHODS
This study included data from two different projects that focused on EE during object
skill performance. Both studies used identical methodologies and collection protocols that
are described elsewhere (i.e., Sacko et al. 2018 & 2019).
3,4
Data on 42 elementary school-
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aged (Mage 8.1 years) children and 40 young adults (Mage = 23.4 years) were analyzed for
this study. The studies were approved by the University Institutional Review Board and the
ethical treatment of participants was followed. Young adults and parents of participating
children provided consent and children provided assent. Children and young adults with
physical disabilities or medical conditions that prevented them from completing testing were
excluded from initial testing. Participants performed three nine-minute MC interval sessions
where participants performed rounds of 5 kicks, 5 throws, and 5 strikes in blocked fashion,
at three different trial intervals (i.e., where one kick, throw, or strike was performed every 6,
12, or 30 seconds). Each participant completed the three MC interval sessions in a
randomized order. Participants were instructed to perform all trials with maximum effort.
Each interval session was followed by a cool-down period in a seated position that lasted no
less than 10 minutes to allow a return to resting state metabolism.
32
The interval schedules
ranged from more intense (i.e., 6 second intervals to less intense intervals (i.e., 30 second
intervals) that could be expected in different practice, training, or physical education
environments. EE was measured with a COSMED K4b
2
portable gas analyzer (COSMED,
Rome, Italy). This lightweight device collects expired respiratory gases on a breath-by-
breath basis to measure oxygen consumption (VO
2
; ml.kg
-1
.min
-1
) and compute the
metabolic equivalent of task (MET).
10
Activities that require at least 4 METS in children and
at least 3 METS in adults are classified as moderate intensity activity in children, with >7
METS in children and >6 METS in young adults being classified as vigorous activities.
7,8
The
average of MET values between minutes 4-8 was computed for each bout. Prior to starting
the skill performance bouts, VO
2
was measured during rest to establish baseline MET
values; these values were used for the cool-down period to ensure recovery to a resting
state following each bout. The gas analyzer was calibrated with standard gases before each
measurement occasion.
10
The device was worn by the participants according to the product
guidelines.
15
Process-Oriented Skill Assessment
Skill performances of kicking and throwing were video-recorded during the 30
second interval condition and scored post-hoc using validated developmental sequences for
the throwing.
27,33
The developmental sequence levels were scored based on the
coordination pattern that was observed for the different segmental components of kicking
and throwing. The modal level from five trials of kicking and throwing were summed and
used for data analysis. Prior to data reduction of the videos, three trained members of the
research team categorized randomly-selected video recorded trials to establish inter-rater
reliability. Inter-rater reliability was established using a Kappa statistic
34
to determine the
strength of agreement between these research team members which ranged from k = .880
- .960. Fourteen days after initial coding, each of the three research team members coded
the same randomly-selected trials to establish intra-rater reliability. Intra-rater ranged from k
= .900 - .945.
Product-Oriented Skill Assessment
Maximal ball speeds during kicking and throwing, were recorded during the 30
second trial by radar gun (STRIKER Inc. Plano, TX) to assess skill levels.
31,35
Speeds were
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also recorded during pre-testing and intermittently during the 6 and 12 second trial intervals
to ensure participant’s consistent effort and performance level. Z-scores were computed for
maximum kicking and throwing speed, and summed to obtain a composite score of object
control competence.
Data analysis
Participant descriptive statistics were calculated for the total sample and by sex and
reported as means (+/- SD) in Table 1.!
First, the correlations between METS, product-oriented object control skill
competence (i.e., speed) and process-oriented object control skill competence were
calculated using bivariate Pearson correlation coefficients.!
Second, multiple linear regressions, as well as second degree polynomial
regressions with response surface analysis (RSA)
36
, were conducted in order to analyze the
effects of process- and product-oriented object control skill competence on METS separately
for children and young adults in the three conditions: 6 seconds, 12 seconds and 30 seconds.
The RSA was used because it has several advantages compared to an ordinary least square
multiple regression.
36
While ordinal least square models compute regression effects for each
variable in so-called ‘full models’, the RSA takes into account that statistical modeling should
always aim at finding the best fitting and, at the same time, the most parsimonious model.
37
This approach ensured avoiding over- and underfitting models by applying a maximum
likelihood estimator that facilitated the analysis of the effects of different fit patterns of the
two-predictor variables on the outcome variable using a path modeling approach. That is,
several models with specific patterns between the different regression coefficients are
estimated and compared to each other. Examples of these models include the null model, a
model with only the linear main effect of the first predictor variable (only-x), the second
predictor variable (only-y), another model with only the linear main effect,, and a model with
both linear effects (additive; Schönbrodt, 2017).
36
To identify the best and most parsimonious
model and to avoid the selection of over- and underfitting models, the relative model fit
between all estimated models were inspected using Akaike’s Information Criteria
37
, because
nested and non-nested models were compared. The Akaike information criterion (AIC) index
adjusted the predictive accuracy of a model relative to its complexity (parsimony).
Model fit of the best fitting models were reported using an information criterion (AIC),
an incremental measure (i.e., comparative fit indices; CFI), the absolute significance of the
model (p), and explained variance (adjusted R
2
). Outliers were controlled according to the
criteria introduced by Bollen and Jackman (1985).
38
The polynomial regression of the second
degree was estimated using equation (1), while the multiple linear regression was estimated
using equation (2):
(1) METS ~ b
0
+ b
1
* process + b
2
* product + b
3
* process
2
+ b
4
* process * product +
b
5
∗
product
2
(2) METS ~ b
0
+ b
1
* process + b
2
* product + b
4
∗
process * product
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The intercept is b
0
. Regression coefficients in the RSA are b
1
to b
5
are shown in
their original scale and as standardized
b
weights. The linear main effects b
1
(process-
oriented object control skill competence) and b
2
(product-oriented object control skill
competence). The curvilinear main effects are b
3
(process-oriented object control skill
competence) and b
5
(product-oriented object control skill competence), but they are not
necessarily part of the most parsimonious model. The interaction effect is b
4
(process-
oriented object control skill competence * product-oriented object control skill competence).
Both predictors (i.e., product-oriented object control skill competence, process-oriented
object control skill competence) were z-transformed by sex in order to control for sex effects.
In the RSA, values are estimated using the maximum likelihood estimator (ML) and robust
standard errors, which are robust against violations of the assumption of normality.
Statistical analyses were executed using R
39
and primarily the RSA package.
36
Open code and data are provided in this study (osf.io/project-name).
RESULTS
In the first step, we investigated the correlations between METS, process- and
product-oriented object control skill competence separately for children and young adults.
All demographic information can be found in Table 1. Process- and product-oriented object
control skill competence were positively associated with METS in the 6 second condition
and in the 12 second condition for children and young adults. However, correlations were
descriptively higher in young adults and there was an additional significant moderate
correlation with the METS in the 30 second condition (see Table 2 for a detailed overview).
Table 1 – Descriptive Characteristics of Study Participants, Energy Expenditure (METS), and Speed (mph)
Age
Body mass
(kg)
Height (cm)
6 second
(METS)
12 second
(METS)
30 second
(METS)
Kick (mph)
Throw
(mph)
Adult Total
23.4 ± 2.6
77.3 ± 16.8
171.4 ± 7.3
8.2 ± 1.6
5.7 ± 1.2
3.5 ± 0.7
42.3 ± 8.0
52.3 ± 15.6
Men (n = 20)
23.3 ± 2.9
82.7 ± 173
175.8 ± 5.5
9.2 ± 1.3
6.2 ± 1.2
3.8 ± 0.7
47.2 ± 6.0
65.2 ± 8.5
Women (n = 20)
23.2 ± 2.3
72.0 ± 14.4
166.9 ± 6.0
7.3 ± 1.4
5.2 ± 1.0
3.2 ± 0.4
37.6 ± 6.8
40.7 ± 10.6
Children Total
8.1 ± 0.8
29.1 ± 5.6
134.4 ± 7.6
8.3 ± 1.6
6.3 ± 1.3
4.5 ± 0.7
27.8 ± 7.6
30.8 ± 8.7
Boys (n = 22)
8.1 ± 0.8
33.2 ± 4.3
139.3 ± 6.3
9.3 ± 1.3
7.0 ± 1.1
4.8 ± 0.7
27.8 ± 7.7
30.7 ± 8.9
Girls (n = 20)
8.1 ± 0.8
30 ± 6.6
135 ± 8.8
7.2 ± 1.1
5.6 ± 1.1
4.1 ± 0.7
28.3 ± 8.3
25.7 ± 5.5
All measures presented as means ± standard deviation; METS = Metabolic Equivalence of Task; mph = miles per hour
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In a second step, multiple linear regressions, as well as RSA, were computed
separately for children and young adults in the 6 second condition, the 12 second condition
and the 30 second condition. Regarding the RSA, the only-x model (only the main effect of
process-oriented object control skill competence) was the best fitting model for five
conditions, while the null model (no meaningful estimator) represented the data best for the
30 second condition for children (for details, see Table 3). The full model did not fit the data
best in any condition.
Thus, process-oriented differences in skill level mainly predicted metabolic
expenditure in all three conditions for both children and young adults. As shown in Table 4
and Table 5, the analyses show that the explained variance of metabolic expenditure was
lower for conditions with increased interval lengths for children (i.e., 21.9%, 8.7%, 0% for 6,
12 and 30 second intervals, respectively) and partly for young adults (i.e., 36.2%, 42.0%,
21.9% for 6, 12 and 30 second intervals, respectively). Multiple linear regressions were
included to illustrate the comparison between both analysis strategies and to illustrate the
advantage of the RSA. Table 4 and 5 also show that the explained variance is higher for the
Table 2 – Correlation matrix.
1
2
3
4
Children
1. Process-oriented object control skill
-
2. Product-oriented object control skill
.766
***
-
3. METS 6 seconds interval
.441
**
.405
**
-
4. METS 12 seconds interval
.358
*
.311
*
.874
***
-
5. METS 30 seconds interval
.203
.037
.620
***
.734
***
Young Adults
1. Process-oriented object control skill
-
2. Product-oriented object control skill
.665
***
-
3. METS 6 seconds interval
.602
***
.428
*
-
4. METS 12 seconds interval
.648
***
.541
**
.830
***
-
5. METS 30 seconds interval
.488
**
.371
*
.568
***
.821
***
Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001. METS: metabolic equivalent of task
Table 3 – Model fit indices for the Response Surface Analysis regarding the effects of product- and process-oriented object control competence on METS for the 6,
12, and 30 second condition for children and young adults.
Model
Best fitting model
AIC
CFI
p
adjusted R
2
p (full model)
Children
6 second condition
Only process-oriented bsc
151.49
.944
.001
.219
.056
12 second condition
Only process-oriented bsc
138.44
1
.034
.087
.335
30 second condition
Null model
-
-
-
-
.286
Young Adults
6 second condition
Only process-oriented bsc
113.26
.892
< .001
.341
.004
12 second condition
Only process-oriented bsc
91.85
1
.002
.400
.005
30 second condition
Only process-oriented bsc
64.97
1
.005
.213
.137
Note. bsc = object control skill competence. p indicates absolute model fit, CFI indicates incremental model fit and R
2
represents overall explained variance, p (full
model) shows the model fit if no regression coefficient is suppressed, METS: metabolic equivalent of task.
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more parsimonious RSA models compared to the multiple linear regression models.
Furthermore, the baseline (intercept) of metabolic expenditure was also lower in conditions
with increased interval rest duration for children and young adults. Simply, the longer the
interval rest period the lower the baseline metabolic expenditure. Similarly, smaller effects
of process-oriented skill level on metabolic expenditure were found in conditions with higher
intervals for both children (β = .488, .331, .000 for 6, 12, and 30 seconds intervals,
respectively) and young adults (β = .602, .648, .488 for 6, 12, and 30 second intervals,
respectively; see also Figure 1 and 2).
Figure 1. Response Surface Analysis illustrating the effects of product- and process-oriented object control skill
competence on metabolic equivalents (METS) for the 6, 12, and 30 second condition for children.
Figure 2. Response Surface Analysis illustrating the effects of product- and process-oriented object control skill
competence on metabolic equivalents (METS) for the 6, 12, and 30 second condition for young adults.
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Table 4 – Results for the Response Surface Analysis regarding the effects of product- and process-oriented object control skill competence on METS for the 6, 12, and
30 second condition for children and a comparison with linear regressions.
Response Surface Analysis
Linear
Regression
Estimate
robust
SE
95 % CI
(lower)
95 % CI
(upper)
b
p
adj.
R
2
Estimate
SE
b
p
adj.
R
2
Children
6 second condition
.219
.153
Intercept
8.367
0.222
7.933
8.802
NA
< .001
8.385
0.261
NA
< .001
Process-oriented bsc
0.931
0.211
0.030
0.136
.488
< .001
1.035
0.667
.362
.129
Product-oriented bsc
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
NA
0.350
0.469
.167
.460
Interaction
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
NA
-0.242
0.357
-.109
.501
12 second condition
.087
.066
Intercept
6.331
0.191
5.958
6.705
NA
< .001
6.284
0.218
NA
< .001
Process-oriented bsc
0.498
0.169
0.167
0.828
.331
.003
0.600
0.559
.263
.289
Product-oriented bsc
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
NA
0.143
0.392
.086
.717
Interaction
0.000
NA
NA
NA
0.000
NA
0.112
0.299
.064
.709
30 second condition
NA
.008
Intercept
4.460
.112
4.239
4.680
NA
< .001
4.433
0.130
NA
< .001
Process-oriented bsc
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
NA
0.514
0.333
.390
.252
Product-oriented bsc
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
NA
-0.280
0.234
-.290
.242
Interaction
0.000
NA
NA
NA
0.000
NA
0.082
0.178
.08
.174
Note. bsc = object control skill competence. The best fitting model from the Response Surface Analysis was the ‘only-x’ model (see Table 3). Therefore, we present the
results from this model for the Response Surface Analysis. The ‘only-x’ model suppresses the main effect of product-oriented bsc and the interaction effect. METS:
metabolic equivalent of task.
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DISCUSSION
The purpose of the current study was to determine relationships between process-
and product-oriented competence levels and METS during object control skill performance
in children and young adults. Generally, results indicated that process- and product-oriented
object control skill competence were positively associated with METS in children and young
adults. Not surprisingly, young adults elicited higher process-oriented levels of skill and
produced higher kicking and throwing speeds (product) than children produced. On average,
boys and young men demonstrated higher process-oriented skill levels and produced higher
kicking and throwing speeds (product) than girls and young women respectively. Boys and
young men, on average, also produced significantly higher levels of EE (measured in METS,
p > .001) across all conditions. One MET represents approximately 3.5 milliliters of oxygen
consumed per kilogram of body weight per minute. In adults, one MET is the approximate
equivalent to an individual’s basal metabolic rate or the amount of energy consumed by the
body while at rest. If an individual is producing movement at a rate of four METS this value
Table 5 – Results for the Response Surface Analysis regarding the effects of product- and process-oriented object control skill competence on METS for the 6, 12, and
30 second condition for young adults and a comparison with linear regressions.
Estimate
robust
SE
95 % CI
(lower)
95 % CI
(upper)
b
p
adj.
R
2
Estimate
SE
b
p
adj.
R
2
Young Adults
6 second condition
.
.362
.296
Intercept
8.200
.230
7.748
8.651
NA
< .001
8.241
0.297
NA
< .001
Process-oriented bsc
0.974
0.179
0.624
1.324
.602
< .001
1.702
0.614
.563
.010
Product-oriented bsc
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
NA
0.128
0.434
.061
.771
Interaction
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
NA
-0.133
0.599
-.035
.826
12 second condition
.420
.386
Intercept
5.685
0.163
5.365
6.005
NA
< .001
5.753
0.208
NA
< .001
Process-oriented bsc
0.787
0.133
0.527
1.048
.648
< .001
1.150
0.430
.507
.012
Product-oriented bsc
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
NA
0.342
0.304
.219
.270
Interaction
0.000
NA
NA
NA
0.000
NA
-0.197
0.420
-.068
.643
30 second condition
.239
.162
Intercept
3.393
0.108
3.181
3.605
NA
< .001
3.412
0.139
NA
< .001
Process-oriented bsc
0.340
0.090
0.165
0.516
.488
< .001
0.557
0.288
.429
.063
Product-oriented bsc
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
NA
0.084
0.204
.094
.683
Interaction
0.000
NA
NA
NA
0.000
NA
-0.057
0.281
-.034
.842
Note. bsc = object control skill competence. The best fitting model from the Response Surface Analysis was the ‘only-x’ model (see Table 3). Therefore, we present the
results from this model for the Response Surface Analysis. The ‘only-x’ model suppresses the main effect of product-oriented bsc and the interaction effect. METS:
metabolic equivalent of task.
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is representative of EE at a rate four times that of rest relative to the individual. As it relates
to skilled performance, individuals of similar stature who produce varying levels of EE must
also exhibit varying levels of effort or movement efficiency. Results from the current study
indicate that individuals who perform movements with a higher level of skill as assessed by
process-oriented measures elicit higher levels of EE. Simply, the more advanced the
movement pattern, the more energy required to produce a movement skill.
The intermittent nature of repetitive motor skill performance provides a logical
explanation for the relationship between EE and the rate of trial performance. As these
results demonstrate, the faster the performance interval the higher the EE. The relationship
of increased EE and decreased rest between trials was constant across all participants
regardless of motor skill level. The current understanding of skill level and EE indicates that
as skill level is increased EE is decreased.
8,40
Efficiency of movement increases in
continuous activities (e.g., walking, jogging, and running) as an individual becomes more
skilled, eliciting a decrease in EE at a relative pace.
8,40
Alternatively, higher levels of discrete
skill performance (e.g., throwing and kicking) are demonstrated by higher accelerations and
speeds of limbs throughout an improved range of motion and greater forces (i.e., eccentric
loading, increased ground reaction forces) are required to decelerate limbs and the center
of mass during the completion of each individual skill performance.
41–44
The greater range
of motion, increased neuromuscular demand and eccentric loading upon landing presumably
increases metabolic energy demand. The current study suggests that highly skilled
individuals demonstrate higher EE during object control skill performance. The strong
association of process-oriented skill level illustrates that increased coordination and control
results in higher levels of EE for both children and young adults. The results also suggest
that this effect is more pronounced in more intense interval conditions.
Surprisingly, whilst product-oriented skill measures do not lack in significance or
descriptive utility, they were not as closely associated with EE as their process-oriented
counterpart. However, this does not diminish the role that product-oriented measurement
should play in the future, rather, these results should amplify the importance of increasing
motor skill performance level as a means of increasing PA. Thus, in the context of skilled
performance, the promotion of advanced movement patterns performed with high effort
should be emphasized with the aim of increasing health related fitness benefits associated
with high levels of PA for all individuals regardless of stature. In view of the current findings,
there is a clear need for more research into the interaction between product- and process-
oriented measures of motor competence. As noted by the study of Logan et al. (2017)
comparing performance of process- and product-oriented assessments of motor skills
across childhood, process- and product-oriented assessments, although related, provide
different information with regard to competence levels.
28
As each method provides one type
of information, it is suggested to combine product- and process-oriented measures in skill
assessment in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of MC and its effect on
other health outcomes.
2,28,45
A major strength of this study is the use of RSAs to illustrate the effects of process-
and product-oriented skill level on EE. The three-dimensional design of the RSA allows for
easy and simultaneous interpretation regarding interactions of three variables (i.e., process-
oriented skill level, product-oriented skill level, and METS). The comprehensive assessment
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of MC in all forms is of increasing importance. Technological advances in motion capturing
have led to a new focus on improving the efficiency and effectiveness of assessment in the
field of motor development.
45
For instance, Bisi et al. (2017) and Lander et al. (2020) have
adopted wearable sensors to facilitate assessment of locomotor and object control skills
included in the Test of Gross Motor Development.
46,47
Concurrently, continued investigations
into process- and product-oriented measurement are warranted to increase our
understanding of MC and its effect on other health outcomes. The use of RSAs in the future
may be beneficial to the analysis and interpretation of these multidimensional studies. In
contrast, this study is not without limitations. For instance, there is a lack of understanding
of the relative contribution of each skill toward the production of EE as well as the exclusion
of striking from skill level assessment (i.e., due to the lack of a validated process
assessment). However, all three skills are multi-joint ballistic skills with similar gross
neuromuscular involvement and kinetic chain mechanisms. Thus; individual skill
performance contributions relative to EE is expected to be similar.
48
CONCLUSION
This study is a significant addition to the literature as it is the first study to explore
the impact of skill levels and EE levels during object control skills using indirect calorimetry
and process and product-oriented assessments in children and young adults. The
importance of promoting activities that involve object control skills would seem beneficial to
impact acute levels of health-enhancing PA in children and adolescence as there is strong
evidence that the development of object control skills positively influences PA levels,
49
multiple aspects of health-related physical fitness,
11,50,51
and body weight status
11,50,52–54
in
youth. Information gleaned from this study provides evidence that the repetitive practice of
object control skills can aid in the achievement of (acute) recommended health enhancing
levels of EE (i.e., MVPA), as well as promote a foundation for skill development that
promotes lifelong PA. Understanding the EE of all MC skills, both object control and
locomotor, is critical to development of a foundation for future PA habits, health-related
physical fitness and a healthy weight status. These data have the potential to significantly
enhance our understanding of the usefulness of process- and product-oriented assessment
tools to associate health enhancing levels of EE with skillfulness.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Authors would like to acknowledge Moritz Eggelbusch for his contributions in
data collection and analysis that aided in the creation of this manuscript.
Citation: Sacko RS, Utesch T, Bardid F, Stodden DF. The impact of motor competence on energy expenditure during
object control skill performance in children and young adults. BJMB. 2021. 15(2): 91-106.
Editors: Dr Fabio Augusto Barbieri - São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, SP, Brazil; Dr José Angelo Barela -
São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro, SP, Brazil; Dr Natalia Madalena Rinaldi - Federal University of
Espírito Santo (UFES), Vitória, ES, Brazil.
Copyright:© 2021 Sacko, Utesch, Bardid and Stodden and BJMB. This is an open-access article distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 International License which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-
profit sectors.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
DOI:!https://doi.org/10.20338/bjmb.v15i2.208