BJMB
Brazilian Journal of Motor Behavior
Research Article
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Costa et al.
2019
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The positive effect of the use of cues for learning forward rolls in children with learning
difficulties
RAFAELA Z. F. COSTA
1
| INARA MARQUES
1
| LAÍSLA C. DA SILVA
1
| JOSIANE MEDINA-PAPST
1
|
1
!
HIGHLIGHTS
• The intervention with cues aided the learning
stages progression.
• The intervention with cues aided the failures
decrease of the skill.
• The learning cues are beneficial to the
forward roll learning.
ABBREVIATIONS
GLC group learning cues
GWC group without learning cues
ICC Intraclass Correlation Coefficient
LC learning cues
POS post-test
PRE pre-test
RET retention
SPSS Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences
PUBLICATION DATA
Received 18 02 2019
Accepted 10 05 2019
Published 01 10 2019
BACKGROUND: Research has demonstrated that learning difficulties are related to motor difficulties.
AIM: The objective of this study was to verify the effect of the use of learning cues in the performance
development of forward rolls by children with learning difficulties.
METHOD: Twenty-six children (12 boys and 14 girls) aged 10-11 years old (mean aged 10.7 ± 0.6 years old)
composed two groups: one with learning cues (GLC) and another without learning cues (GWC). The children
were indicated by the school as they present learning difficulties in several academic areas and, therefore,
attend reinforcement classes in the extra-curricular period at school. The study took place in four phases: Pre-
test; Intervention (five sessions, 45-minutes each); Post-test; Retention (two days post-test). For the motor
performance analysis, the children were filmed and the videos were analyzed by two evaluators, using the motor
pattern check list for the forward rolls.
RESULTS: Regarding GWC, no significant differences were found. On the other hand, GLC showed significant
results during the evaluation phases.
CONCLUSION: This showed that the use of cues to teach forward rolls to children with learning difficulties was
positive, demonstrating that learning cues are fundamental resources which teachers in the area can adopt.
KEYWORDS: Motor Learning | Learning Cues | Learning Difficulties | Basic Motor Skill | Forward Roll
INTRODUCTION
Researches have demonstrated the existence of a relationship between motor and
cognitive development
1,2
, and children with learning difficulties also present motor
difficulties
2,3,4,5,6
. Recently, the number of studies interested in investigating factors related
to these difficulties has increased.
Lopes et al.
2
identified that in children, difficulties in gross motor skills, which
require participation of larger muscle groups, such as running, jumping, etc., are
associated with the child's cognitive functioning. According to the authors, the activation of
the cerebellum and the frontal lobe play an important role in mediating between gross
motor skills and cognitive functions, so that motor practice reinforces the neural network,
resulting in the pre-activation of cortical activities that are responsible by cognitive
functions.
Other studies also report to pronounced delay in the motor development of
children with learning difficulties
3
, highlighting the compromised development of
components related to body, spatial and temporal notions
4
. Specifically, regarding balance
tasks, Silva and Beltrame
5
observed that boys with learning difficulties in writing and
Centro de Educação Física e Esporte, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, PR, Brazil.
Correspondence to: Rafaela Zortéa Fernandes Costa, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid, Pr445, Km380, Campus Universitário. Caixa postal 10.011, CEP: 86057-970, Londrina, PR, BRAZIL.
email: rafaela_zortea@hotmail.com
https://doi.org/10.20338/bjmb.v13i4.129
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reading presented worse results in performance of balance tasks compared to girls and
boys with other types of learning difficulties. Amaro, Jatobá, Santos and Rosa Neto
6
also
reports that children with learning difficulties demonstrated greater difficulties in executing
balance and temporal organization skills. From this perspective, it is known that balance
motor skills are extremely important both in the sports and physical activity context, or
even to move quickly and efficiently from one place to another in everyday activities
7
. In
the scope of skills with this requirement, the forward roll is a skill applied in the context of
gymnastics, which involves dynamic balancing ability, and children aged about seven
years old should be able to master this skill.
Perotti Júnior and Pellegrini
8
pointed out that, although the skill to roll is a motor
pattern that very young children can perform on their first attempt, it is usually carried out
in a disorganized way and with the presence of unnecessary movements. In general, it is
stated that, throughout development, the child acquires some aspects of the skill, such as
body alignment and speed, perfecting it progressively. However, it should be noted that
failure in one of these aspects will influence the movement as a whole. Thus, for the
individual reach high levels of performance, it is considered that guided practice and the
use of efficient strategies are necessary
9
.
Studies such as those of Newell
10
and Schmidt and Wulf
11
emphasize the
influence of several factors related to learning that can potentiate the acquisition of
different skills, among which verbal and visual instructions are highlighted, indicating what
the learner should do or how to carry out the action
12
. However, these instructions may be
full of information, which would make it difficult to interpret and maintain long-term memory.
For these processes to occur, selective attention is essential, because the process of
choosing and selecting the relevant information to be processed depends on the
involvement of the attention mechanisms to highlight the priority source of attention
13
.
Considering that different strategies have the objective of enhancing learning,
instructions through cues are considered beneficial for the acquisition of motor skills by
acting on the mechanisms of information processing. This strategy focuses the learner's
attention on the important phases of the task, helping them to discard the irrelevant
information present in the action
14,15
and accelerating the transition between learning
stages
16
. In this case, the emphasis is on control of the selective attention mechanisms of
the performer, acting as a strategy that does not overload the learner with information. The
objective of instructional cues is to provide simple and specific information related to the
critical elements of the activity
14,17
.
The classic study conducted by Masser
14
has already demonstrated favorable
results from the use of cues and, among the abilities tested by the author, the learning of
forward rolls stands out. Other studies that demonstrated a positive effect of the use of
cues were conducted in the context of dance
16
, in the body perception improvement of
children with a motor deficiency
18
, learning rhythmic gymnastics skills
19
, dive rolls
20
, field
tennis
21
, and the Crawl swimming technique performed by hearing impaired individuals
22
.
It can be observed that learning cues present positive effects in different contexts
and with different populations; however, it is barely known about their effect on the learning
of children with academic learning difficulties. Such difficulties are understood as students’
issues during the schooling period, specifically to the capture and assimilation of
information
5
. Therefore, investigations into the effectiveness of this strategy in this
population are necessary, mainly due to the great ease of cues usage in the teaching-
learning process at scholar contexts
23
. Considering the learning difficulties of these
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children, this study questions whether the selected learning cues would have the potential
to make the instructions clearer and more objective, so as to aid in the acquisition of these
skills. Thus, the objective of the study was to conduct an intervention to test the effect of
learning cues (LC) on the acquisition of forward rolls by children with learning difficulties.
To test this effect, the following hypotheses were considered: 1) children would
learn the motor skill as an effect of practice, but the group with learning cues would
maintain their performance after the intervention; 2) children who received learning cues
would perform better compared to the group without cues.
METHODS
This study is characterized as almost experimental, without control group. It has
methodological focus on the description and explanation of the effects of the use of cues in
the learning process of forward rolls.
Sample
Twenty-six children (12 boys and 14 girls) aged 10,7 ± 0,6 years old and enrolled
in the municipal school of Cambé-PR composed two experimental groups: a group which
did not receive learning cues (GWC) (mean aged 10.4 ± 0.5 years old) and a group which
received learning cues (GLC) (mean aged 11.0 ± 0.6 years old) during learning of forward
roll. The sample was formed by convenience, according to the proposed criteria fulfillment
for the characterization of the groups.
The children were indicated by the school as they presented academic learning
difficulties, such as on reading, writing, mathematics, language, task comprehension, or
even on interpersonal relationship issues. In addition, these children attended the
reinforcement period during the extra-curricular school hours. In order to isolate
interference from contact between the children of different groups, each group belonged to
a different school. All the children and their parents signed a Free and Informed Consent
Term and the research was approved by the Ethics Committee in Research with Human
Beings of the local University (Opinion no. 1,675,276). Table 1 describes the distribution of
children regarding learning difficulties; information obtained from the school pedagogical
team.
Instruments
The motor pattern checklist for forward rolls, proposed by Gallahue and Donnelly
7
,
was used to evaluate the forward roll skill. This list includes three stages of skill
development: a) initial stage; b) elementary stage; and c) mature stage, in which points are
indicated for the observation of body segments throughout the skill performance. As the
movement was delineated in stages, the learning evaluation was performed from
Table 1 – Characteristics of the groups regarding learning difficulties.
Difficulties
Age
Reading
Writing
Mathematics
Interpersonal
Relationships
Attention
GWC (n=11)
10 ± 0.5
3
2
1
2
3
GLC (n=15)
11 ± 0.6
7
4
1
2
1
Source: The authors.
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observation of the items realization, being that, for the classification, the learner was
required to present the highest number of items related to that stage. In addition to the skill
stages, nine faults and/or difficulties were observed in the skill performance: 1) the head
forcibly touches the mattress; 2) failure to properly bend the body ; 3) inability to push with
the arms; 4) pushes with one arm; 5) failure to remain in a bent position; 6) inability to
perform consecutive rolls; 7) feels dizzy; 8) failure to perform the roll in a straight line; and
9) loss of sufficient momentum to complete a circuit.
To film the children’s performance during experimental phases (pre-test; post-test
and retention; PRE, POS and RET, respectively) a Sony-brand digital camera, Handycam
DCR-SR42 was used, with a 60 Hz sampling frequency and programmed automatic
shutter speed.
For the intervention, the following equipment was used: large artistic gymnastics
mattress, a foam ramp, a Pilates ball of size number 75, TNT strips, a #10 ball, and a
notebook to skill’s video demonstration.
Procedures
The children’s motor performance evaluation in the forward roll task was
performed before (PRE) and after the intervention classes (POS), and in a third evaluation
session (RET), conducted 48 hours after the POS. All sessions (PRE, POS, and RET)
followed the same procedure, that is, the children watched a demonstration video of the
skill twice and then made three attempts of the forward roll on a large artistic gymnastics
mattress. In order to isolate interference from contact among children of different groups,
each group belonged to a different school. After random separation of the groups (GWC
and GLC) the children participated of an intervention program to learn the forward roll. The
intervention consisted of five classes, three times a week, 45 minutes each, taught by the
researcher with the help of a Physical Education teacher previously instructed about the
procedures of each session. The activities planned for the intervention were progressively
elaborated (from the simplest to the most complex), so children performed several
exercises, such as rolling on a Pilates ball or rolling on a foam ramp, starting from the
highest point. During the classes, the children were instructed about the exercises and
watched the forward roll motor skill demonstration video before performing the task
attempts. Each class consisted of four exercises, performed in a progressive way, at the
end of each class, the children performed play activities, such as chase games and/or
hopscotch.
GLC children received learning cues during intervention classes while GWC
children did not received learning cues. During the intervention sessions, the GLC group
received the LC in each session, after and before each practice. The LCs were provided in
a way that all students could listen to them, thus ensuring that participants received the
same number of cues.
The cues used teach the skill were directly related to specific points in the
developmental stages, following the progressive order: "bend your body like a ball"; "try to
keep your body in a straight line"; "keep your chin in your chest"; "keep your body bent
tightly "; and "when you touch your feet on the ground, throw your arms forward to lift you".
Statistical analysis
In the present study, the classification of the skill in stages and the number of
performance errors of each child were used to the analysis. In this way, the stages and
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failures number performed during the pre-test (PRE), post-test (POS), and retention (RET)
phases were compared. The choice was made to use the faults concomitantly to the
stages so that the changes in performance could be observed more efficiently, since
improvement in performance would entail in a decrease in the errors number.
The performance was evaluated through the recorded images and analyzed by an
examining board composed of two Physical Education specialists. The evaluators received
the videos in random order in relation to the evaluation phases (PRE, POS, and RET) and
in relation to the children.
The Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) was applied to verify the agreement
between the evaluators in the observation of the stages and the faults presented by the
children. Subsequently, the Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the stages and
faults between the groups and the Friedman and Wilcoxon post-hoc test was used for the
comparison among phases (PRE, POS, and RET). The Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences - SPSS for Windows - (Version 13.0, SPSS Inc. ©, Chicago, Illinois) was used,
with a significance level of p <0.05.
RESULTS
After analysis of the videos, it was verified the agreement between the evaluators
in the observation of the stages and faults presented by the children, with a high
correlation (Stages, ICC = 0.81 and p = 0.001; Faults, ICC = 0.96 and p = 0.001). In
relation to the frequency of children classified into the different stages during the phases, it
can be observed that there was an increase of children classified in the mature stage of
the forward roll skill development in the GLC (POS n = 12 and RET n = 12). In the GWC,
there was little change over the phases (Table 2).
In the comparison between the groups (GWC and GLC) regarding stage
classification, there were no differences in the PRE phase (U = 76.00, p = 0.76), but a
difference was observed in the POS (U = 37.50, p = 0.01) and RET (U = 40.00, p = 0.02),
in a manner that in the GLC there was a higher frequency of children with more advanced
stages of the skill compared to the GWC.
Regarding the GWC, there were no statistically significant differences over the
phases (PRE, POS, and RET) in the classification of the stages (p = 0.36) or the number
of faults (p= 0.25). Differently, in the GLC, there were significant results over the phases
(PRE, POS, and RET), both in the classification of the stages (p = 0.00), with a significant
improvement in the performance from PRE to RET (p = 0.05) and in the number of faults
Table 2 – Absolute frequency and relative frequency of children classified in the stages throughout the phases in each group.
Group
Stage
Pre-test
Post-test
Retention
GWC
Initial
2 (18.2%)
2 (18.2%)
2 (18.2%)
Elementary
6 (54.5%)
7 (63.6%)
6 (54.5%)
Mature
3 (27.3%)
2 (18.2%)
3 (27.3%)
GLC
Initial
2 (13.3%)
2 (13.3%)
1 (6.7%)
Elementary
11 (73.3%)
1 (6.7%)
2 (13.3%)
Mature
2 (13.3%)
12 (80.0%)
12 (80.0%)
Source: The authors.
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(p= 0.00), with a significant improvement from the PRE to POS phase (p= 0.02) and from
PRE to RET (p= 0.02). This demonstrates that the learning cues were effective to improve
the skill performance, which was maintained even after the practice was finished,
characterizing thus, the forward roll learning (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Median of the faults of each group during the PRE, POS, and RET phases. *a,b,c=p=0.001.
Source: The authors
The number of faults comparison between groups has not demonstrated
significant differences in the PRE (U = 63,50; p= 0.33) and POS phases (U = 57.00; p=
0.19), only in the RET phase (U= 44.00; p= 0.04) in which the GLC presented lower
number of faults compared to the GWC. In the comparison among the phases there was a
significant decrease in the GLC’s number of faults from PRE to POS (p= 0.02) and from
PRE to RET (p= 0.02). On the other hand, the GWC presented a descriptive increase in
the number of errors from the POS to the RET phase.
DISCUSSION
The present study tested the effect of specific cues for verifying forward roll
learning by children with learning difficulties at the school setting. The results
demonstrated skill learning by children who received LC (GLC), demonstrated by the
increase in the number of children classified in the mature stage of the skill development
(PRE = 2; POS = 12; RET = 12) and a decrease in the number of faults over the phases
(PRE = 13; POS = 6; RET = 4). These results allow us to conclude that the cues provided
critical information to learn the skill in a short time of practice, supporting the idea that this
strategy assists students in selecting relevant information without overloading them at the
instruction time. These results reaffirm the findings in the literature, highlighting that LCs
have the potential to maximize the learning of the proposed motor skill
15
.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
PRE POS RET
NUMBER OF FAULTS
GLC GWC
b
c
a
b
c
a
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It is worth mentioning that although the GLC presented different performance from
the GWC at PRE, there was no significant difference in this phase, neither in relation to the
stages (U= 76.00, p= 0.76) nor in relation to the number of faults (U= 63.50; p= 0.33).
It was observed that the GWC has not demonstrated improved performance,
neither in stage classification nor in relation to the number of faults, despite performing the
same practical activities during the five intervention sessions. It was found that this group,
at the end of the practice, presented an increased number of faults, whereas the GLC
presented a reduced number of faults even after the practice ended, demonstrating the
beneficial and long-lasting effect of learning cues.
These results corroborate the findings of Caçola and Ladewig
19
in a study for the
learning of throwing a ball followed by rolling forward and recovery with the feet on the
ground, using only six intervention sessions, thus confirming the cues usage beneficial
effect for the acquisition of the forward roll skill, minimizing the learning time.
Even considering the specificities of the studied sample, it can be stated that the
learning difficulties have not presented obstacles to the effective use of the cues, allowing
improvement in the motor pattern of the skill and a significant decrease in the number of
faults. Thus, we can affirm the beneficial effect of the cues usage for children with learning
difficulties focused on the specific aspects of the action, in order to directly influence the
learning of the skill and to potentiate the practice, reducing overload on the attention
processes
15
. It is worth noting that the learning difficulties presented in this study refer to
specific contents (reading, writing and mathematics) or behavioral order (attention and
interpersonal relationship issues), which suggests a deeper understanding taking into
account all the specificities of this population.
Other studies testing the effect of LCs with more specific populations, such as
Medina et al.
20
, who aimed to evaluate learning in the acquisition of dive rolls by children
with Developmental Coordination Disorder, did not find a positive effect after seven
intervention classes. The authors concluded that the learning cues used did not present
information relevant enough for significant improvement in children's motor performance,
suggesting that, although effective, cues should be elaborated and adapted to the specific
characteristics of the learners.
The fact that LCs presented positive effects for the learning of the forward roll in
the present study confirm the study’s hypotheses and reinforce the suggestion that for this
strategy to be effective, they should focus on the essential elements of the skill to be
learned. In this way, the teacher/instructor must know the specificities of the task and
learners so that they can provide the most adequate cues to achieve the desired goal
14,23
.
By this way, the results of the present study add important information regarding the usage
of cues and its effectiveness for teaching children with learning difficulties and the
possibilities of using it at school context. Regardless the difficulty kinds, these children
need a different look and, it seems, that the learning cues can be good strategies for
teaching motor skills to this population.
As this was an intervention realized in groups, to control all intervening variables in
a learning process of this nature was impossible, such as the number of times the child
observed their friends performing the skill, and the possible practice of similar abilities in
other school activities or even at home. It is also worth noting that the instrument used for
the evaluation of learning is not a validated and proposed instrument for research
purposes. However, there are available studies in the literature that have used this method
to observe changes in the performance with experience in the task
24,25
. It should be
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emphasized that these aspects do not detract from the found results, but reinforce the
need for further studies using this strategy (learning cues), since it can contribute to the
work of the Physical Education professional aiming to help students to learn different motor
skills.
It is considered that future studies should be carried out with different populations,
allowing greater comparisons of the cues effects on this basic skill learning, without ruling
out the context of usage in the school environment by Physical Education teachers.
CONCLUSION
Based on the results of the present study, it was concluded that LCs were
beneficial for learning the forward roll by children with learning difficulties, minimizing the
time taken to learn the proposed motor skill. It is emphasized that the cues need to focus
on the essential elements of the skill and their usage should take into account the learners’
characteristics. It is considered that this strategy should be investigated in future studies,
especially considering its easy use in learning contexts, mainly at school environments.
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Citation: Costa RZF, Marques I, Silva LC, Medina-Papst J. The positive effect of the use of cues for learning forward
rolls in children with learning difficulties. BJMB. 2019: 13(4): 94-103.
Editor: Dr Fabio Augusto Barbieri - São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, SP, Brazil; Dr José Angelo Barela -
São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro, SP, Brazil; Dr Natalia Madalena Rinaldi - Federal University of
Espírito Santo (UFES), Vitória, ES, Brazil.
Copyright: © 2019 Costa, Marques, Silva and Medina-Papst and BJMB. This is an open-access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are
credited.
Funding: There was no funding for this study.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.20338/bjmb.v13i4.129